What Is A Learning Style?

A learning style is a student's consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning. Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as the "composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment." Stewart and Felicetti (1992) define learning styles as those "educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn." Thus, learning styles are not really concerned with "what" learners learn, but rather "how" they prefer to learn.

Taken from Instructional Strategies and Learning Styles: Which takes Precedence?

Located in the Trends and Issues in Instructional Technology (Ed August 3, 2000).

"Gagné’s position has been called content-by-treatment interaction (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993) or I would prefer content-by-strategy interaction. This position suggests that the goals of instruction are primary in determining an appropriate instructional strategy for a particular instructional goal. Many research studies have demonstrated that, regardless of the learning style of the student, when the goal of the instruction, as measured by tests that are consistent with this goal, are consistent with the strategies used to teach this goal, then learning is optimal. (See Merrill, 1994). When the instructional strategies used are inconsistent with the goal of the instruction, then there is a decrement in learning. In a recent

paper we outlined a few of the appropriate strategy requirements for some common different kinds of instructional goals (Merrill, 1998). An examination of much of the available training material demonstrates that much of our current training materials include instructional strategies that are inconsistent with the goals of the instruction. Inconsistent instruction is ineffective instruction regardless of learner style.

Gardner argues for different kinds of intelligence (Gardner, 1983). He argues that some persons are strong in one kind of intelligence while another person is stronger in another kind of intelligence. That if my strength is in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence I might learn to dance very well while having trouble learning mathematics or science. Isn’t this a case where learning style (Gardner intelligence type) makes a difference? Of course it makes a difference, but, not in the fundamental components of the instructional strategy. This difference might be characterized as a learning-style-by-content interaction. A given person might have learning mechanisms and physical abilities that favor the content of one domain of learning over another. However, the content types suggested by Gagné and myself do not refer to subject domains but rather to kinds of outcomes that are likely to occur within every domain. Each of the different types of intelligence may still require the learner to acquire a concept, learn the parts of an entity, learn a procedure, or understand a process. It is these fundamental types of outcome that determines different instructional strategies in a content-by-strategy interaction. Whether a learner’s strength is logico-mathematical or bodily-kinesthetic when learning a concept within that domain it is still necessary to have a definition, examples, non-examples, and to practice identifying previously unencountered examples in order to acquire the concept" (Merrill 2000 p. 1-2).

This article basically states that we learn based primarily on the instructional strategy for the goal and that students can learn this goal reguardless of thier learning styles.

Haley Armstrong

Research by: Margie Christie

Journal Article: The Effects of the Multiple Intelligence Teaching Strategy on the Academic Achievement Of Eighth Grade Math Students

Authors: Onika Douglas, Kimberly Smith Burton and Nancy Reese-Durham

"If we are to achieve a richer culture...we must weave one in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place." -Margaret Mead (famous anthropologist, intellectual and scientist)

• This quote was used in the article and I think it illustrates the authors' positive view on Multiple Intelligences

This article spoke of the importance to recognize that "children develop and learn differently, therefore, it is essential that the strategies employed, reflect the changing view points" in today's world. Specifically, the article supported Howard Gardner's theory that "there are many different types of talents or knowledge that could help to enrich one's life and respond effectively to one's environment."-theory on Multiple Intelligences.

To further illustrate this point, the authors declared that "it is important for teachers to care about multiple intelligences because this teaching style will better prepare students for tomorrow's complex world, will make the curriculum accessible to all students, and will make the content area engaging and exciting to all students." Furthermore, "students should be taught based on their ability and ways of learning."

Experiment

The authors then proceeded to conduct an experiment in which they could test the outcomes of utilizing multiple intelligence (MI) learning versus a more standard learning style, direct instruction (DI).

Participants: The experiment was performed on 57 eighth graders (boys and girls), attending a public school in North Carolina and learning math.

Hypothesis: Students who are taught in an environment utilizing multiple intelligence strategies will have achieved higher academic math test scores that those students who do not.

Procedure: Some students were taught using MI and some students were taught using DI. For Direct Instruction, students were involved in activities such as teacher-led lecturing, drill and practice, notes on the overhead, worksheets, and practice problems from textbook. For Multiple Intelligences, students were engaged in activities such as completing logic problems, creating rhymes of remember mathematical concepts, building or constructing a model, inventing a board game to illustrate learned material, and performing a class presentation using at least one of the intelligences.

Results: The original hypothesis was supported: Multiple Intelligence teaching styles were more successful that Direct Instruction teaching styles MI students scored 25.48 points on the test, when DI students scored 17.25 (on average).

Source: Journal of Instructional Psychology 35 no2 Je 2008

Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. Learning and Skills Research Centre. Retrieved Sept. 19, 2008 from http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf

This very long study summed up the authors' research findings that learning styles are not really "styles," but rather "preferences" in that we do NOT learn best by using our style of learning. That is, we prefer one or more styles over others. Furthermore, the authors asserted from their findings that learning style assessments are probably more accurate for older people as younger ones are simply more adaptive due to the greater plasticity of their brains. This brought into question all of the instruments available to measure learning styles and the validity of them. The traits these assessments measure cannot determine which traits are consistent, and even if the trait is quite consistent, it has no real impact in how we will react when dealing with a given situation. When you add in the large test measurement error rate (which they assert is true of every learning assessment tool), the instability of traits due to aging, then it simply becomes very difficult, if not downright impossible to create a valid assessment for learning styles.

For anyone interested in the debate over designing educational tools to "fit" one of the learning styles, this article would be very beneficial. Before reading it I was unwavering in my opinion that we should design learning in such a way as to meet the needs of the children's learning styles. I am no longer so strong in my belief after reading this research. --Tina Heindel

I found some information on learning styles. According to this information it says that everyone does have a preferred learning styles. On this page you can take a little test to actually find out what is your learning style. Here is the link: http://www.ldpride.net/learning-style-test.html Veronica

There are three basic types of learning styles. The three most common are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. To learn, we depend on our senses to process the information around us. Most people tend to use one of their senses more than the others. On the site that I saw it gave summaries about each type of learning styles and you could take a quiz to discover your particular learning style. The site was http://www.worldwidelearn.com/education-article/how-do-you-learn.htm?s=ypi. Jessica Martin

I found a good recent article by Gardner where he argues for MI in looking back at its applications and misapplications since it was introduced. He reinforces his own original concepts in a more explanatory way and overall gives credence to the fact that the argument for modularity has been made (not the misapplication, where people thought that since there were seven different intelligences, you needed seven different IQ tests.) It was a good read, and made me accept the fact that the basic concept is correct: we all learn in different ways based on how attuned our brains are at processing information. Hence" Are we generalists or specialists?") Check it out: http://www.pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG_MI_after_20_years.pdf Chris Goodell

From J.J.-I found an excellent website where technology and multiple intelligences are topics that caught my eye. This site raises and answers the questions: What are the multiple intelligences? What do they have to do with technology? and How can I incorporate these ideas into teaching and learning? Nine of Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences are explained and the technology tools that support classroom activities for each of these intelligences:

Check it out- http://eduscapes.com/tap/topic68.htm Judy Hutton

Self-rated Estimates of Multiple Intelligences Based on Approaches to Learning written by Terry Bowles, PhD at Australian Catholic University, Australian Journal on Educational and Developmental Psychology, Vol. 8, 2008 p.15-26. (http://www.newcastle.edu.au/group/ajedp/ A questionaire booklet was constructed with a Likert-type scale to approach seven approaches to learning: Interest, Ease, Effort, Understanding, Performance, Pre-occupaton and Natural Ability. This study addresses the effect of these approaches on male and female students with certain learning styles and the significance of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory. "These findings should be accepted with caution." This article must point out that this data is not conclusive. It appears there is a high margin of error that most likely exists in this new measuring instrument and in this narrow, limited setting: "The measuring instrument is new, and although promising, it requires further validation against other measures and confirmation of the factor structure. They may not represent typical adolescent behavior. The sample of two schools with possibly different cultures and educational emphasis, thus the result may not generalize to other settings. By better defining the talents, establishing their independence, and the sex differences associated with specific talents..has been enhanced." This study seemed to be a waste of time and is not proof that these so-called multiple intelligences, such as linguistic and kinesthetic, were measured accurately in an average, typical classroom. Furthermore, a student (male or female) who is not performing well in one type of intelligence, such as linguistic (or the subject of English) but performs well in kinesthetic (or physical education), may only concentrate on P.E. class and never give other subjects the attention needed to excel. Schools need to emphasize academics and let the parents supply the opportunities for their child to grow in the other so-called intelligences, such as art and music, etc. Gardner's multiple intelligences theory is impractical for use in the typical school classroom and teachers do not have the time to address these nine intelligences; the validity of his theory has not been proven. --Judy (J.J.) Hutton. (This assignment was to pose a different view than what I believe.)

http://www.mindtools.com/mnemlsty.html addresses the various learning styles: visual, verbal, active, reflective, sequential, and global and bringing your learning styles into balance. Felder and Silverman's Index of Learning Styles is discussed in detail. Judy (J.J.) Hutton

I thought that determining students' learning styles would be difficult. After all, they all learn differently. So I went looking for a source that said it was easy. I found http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/LS-1988.pdf It gives some suggestions on how to determine learning styles and they seem fairly simple. See what you think!! :) Julie Hasuly :)

I found an article that argues against multiple intelligences. It says that multiple intelligence theory is really predated by cognitive style theory. Cognitive style theory is the same as psycholgical differentiation. In psychological differentiation, developmental changes have earlier stages as prerequisites. Only the changes that are qualitative (they deal with basic biological underlying structures) are important to development. Werner, a cognitive style theorist, declared that each individual has certain ways of organizing all that they take in, comprehend, and ponder upon. The debate over the multiple intelligence theory stems from an earlier belief in one definable single factor of intelligence, often termed the "g" factor. While Gardner (and others) did offer the world an alternative to the one factor "g" discourse, MI theory is really a repeat of cognitive stylist theory. All of Gardner's "intelligences" have corresponding learning styles. Gardner's (and MI theory's) downfall, is that it never truly breaks free from the "g" factor. Critics of Gardner hold that his intelligences can be boiled down into the "g" factor. Additionally, cognitive style theorists point out that certain intelligences should never be discouraged for children who score low points in the assessed intelligence. For one, the tests may be flawed. For another reason, unforseen influences may act upon the child in a positive light and cause for he/she to advance greatly in the intelligence. Multiple intelligence theory says nothing on this common occurrence. How Garder overlooked cognitive theory will never be known, but what is known is that the two have many similarities. Seeing the differences is where the truth lies. To get to the article, you will have to log into the U. of M. library page, go to Periodicals and Databases. Go to databases A-Z. Go to Wilson Omni File Mega Full Search. The article is An analysis of Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences. By Harry Morgan (1996) for Roeper Review. Edition no. 18, pp.263-269. -------Brenton Reese

I found an entry on an educator's blog boldly entitled "Learning Styles Are Bunk." This blog entry links to a scholarly article on the subject, and also contains an embedded YouTube video by the article's author, Dan Willingham. - Matt Bell

I found an article that believes that students gain knowledge from different learning styles. Judith Reiff stated that when teachers understand that students learn in a different way they will be able to prevent disciple problems, communicate with parents, reduce teacher burn-out, organize their classroom, and help children to reach their potential. The article provided great instructional tips and activities for different kinds of learners. --- Latarsha Prophete

Reiff, J C (1996). Bridging home and school through multiple intelligences. Childhood Education, 72, n3. p. 164(3). Retrieved September 21, 2008, from GeneralOnefile via Gale:http:find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.memphis.edu/itx/startdo?prodId=ITOF

I thought that learning styles were "deeply significant" as discussed in class, so I set about to find an article that said they were not significant. This link is to an article that argues that while students may have a preferred learning style, truly great teachers can teach students to overcome their perceived learning styles. http://www.ntlf.com/html/pi/9511/article1.htm The article is "Learning Styles Can Become Learning Strategies" by W. J. McKeachie of The University of Michigan, published in The National Teaching & Learning Forum, Nov. 1995, Vol.4 No.6. McKeachie writes, "As in most things, there are potential undesirable side effects from the use of learning style concepts...Regardless of their learning 'styles,' students can learn strategies that enable them to be effective when taught by methods that are not compatible with their preferred 'style.' " Kelly Wilkerson

Ifound a site that I thought was rather interesting which had some different views form Gardner on Learning Styles and Mutiple Intelligences. The authors argues that Gardner did not provide adequat guidelines differences and similarities of the two theories.http://www.ascd.org/authors/ed_lead/el199709_silver.html Dianne Johnson

I see where the unfortunate result of trying to take an academic observation and turn it into a practical application would result in tragedy. Teachers and students drowned in a sea of handouts. Forests being destroyed every tree being converted to tri-folds and colored poster board. Endless hours resulting in sessions of projects about projects. Yes, teachers need to be reminded and perhaps even given a reason to be creative and innovative, but the incorporation of something so complex and specific as multiple intelligences into educational doctrine is probably not the most efficient use of our educational resources and certainly goes beyond the original scope of Gardner's work. Robert Schueller

"I don't remember when it happened but at a certain moment, I decided to call these faculties "multiple intelligences" rather than abilities or gifts. This seemingly minor lexical substitution proved very important; I am quite confident that if I had written a book called "Seven Talents" it would not have received the attention that Frames of Mind received." -Howard Gardner

I had a basic understanding of the idea of multiple intelligences and learning styles, and I was of the opinion that though they hold quite a bit of sway, they are not all-encompassing and not all-important. I googled “learning style significance” and I found this article: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VCJ-4078M0H-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=02216c3a69b89efbb98e9fb8bbc5e329, which seemed to be somewhat relevant to our course as it studied the “the role of student learning styles, gender, attitudes and perceptions on information and communication technology assisted learning.” The researchers found that the learning style differences among 99 undergraduate students were practically insignificant but that the students seemed somewhat uncomfortable with the technology integration. It also reinforced what our book has been saying, by indicating that the up and coming generations seem more technologically competent and more comfortable using the technology to learn, but they are not as open or as enthusiastic about the new “style” of learning (computer-based instead of teacher-based) because it is not what they are used to. Emily Lowry

In the case of multiple intelligences. The debate seems to arise around the sensory qualifications of the individual. That is, some students will have abilities and talents based on areas of their development in the areas of the three promiment senses of Sight, Sound, Touch. Meaning some students have more devoloped visual response to learning , while some are more auditory , while others are more tactial (touch). It is my view that learning must be inclusive of all the possibilites of a students involvement in the process of associating past to present through all the experience and education that has preceded. A more organic approach to learning. Some students will have more developed sensory aptitude as in the case of a blind student who is use to reading braille , their sense of touch will be more developed in the areas of the brain that have been trained for this purpose. Adaptation rather than multiple intelligence, Ref. PBS episode on the Brain.

 Clay Bounds

http://lizditz.typepad.com/i_speak_of_dreams/2008/03/learning-styles.htm

• http://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.memphis.edu/us/lnacademic/api/version1/sr?csi=210635&sr=headline%28Multiple+Intelligences+and+Learning+Styles%3A+Two+Sides+of+the+Same+Coin+or+Different+Strokes+for+Different+Folks%3F%29+and+date+is+2001&secondRedirectIndicator=true This article is a great breakdown, on multiple and learning styles are. I did not have an opion good or bad in this matter, but after reading this article I gained a better understanding of the subject.I have come to the conclusion that all the terms used to describe multiple inteligences and learning styles, are not enough to determine a persons learning ability for their entire life. In order to get a better understanding of childs learning style, teachers must try new and challenging methods of teaching all the time. There is no set formula. Therefore students should not be categorized.Jameka Sanders Roberts

When I started researching, I was a pretty strong believer in the MI theory. I still sort of am, but I do not believe Gardner meant for people to be classified into one type of intelligence. While a person might be stronger in one or two certain areas, I think the important thing for school is to stress having everyone use and excersize all facets of their intelligence rather than narrowing it down to just one. Also, if you tell students they are of a certain type of intelligence, you may limit them from trying new things or make them feel incapable of using the other types of intellignece. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=multiple+intelligences&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b802f6581&accno=ED500515&_nfls=false>>>> -Sally Stinchfield

Learnativity

Learnawhat? Learn-a-tivity is the notion that individual and organizational effectiveness depends on learning better, faster, smarter and through the consistent application of learning, combined with creativity, flexibility, and paying close attention to the right things. This site introduces you to resources that support that learnativity revolution. We have no products to sell here, but rather introduce you to ideas that help expand imagination and business practice. We try our very best to stay objective, editorially independent, and only speak from our own experiences. This site is our gift to a world we enjoy learning from and for each and every day. Enjoy!

This is a very interesting website and one worth reading if this subject interests you.The link is [http:www.learnativity.com] Let me know your thoughts! -Tina Heindel