A theory is a general principle that explains or predicts facts, observations or events. A theory is generally accepted as valid when it has survived repeated testing.
Learning theories tend to fall into one of several perspectives or paradigms. Behaviorism is considered a learning theory. Behaviorism is also a paradigm, which includes Operant Conditioning, Social Learning and Classical Conditioning theories.

The field of Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) relies on learning theories to groug research findings into an understandable whole. IDT's theoretical roots fall under behaviorism and the works of Skinner and Thorndike. Skinner and Thordike are psychological theorists. While portions of IDT still follow this route, cognitivism is currently the dominant paradigm for research. Cognitivism is a social psychological paradigm. IDT is moving toward complex learning research and this means more psychologically based theories will become dominant again.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.

Originators and important contributors: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, E. L. Thorndike and Albert Bandura.

Keywords: Classical conditioning (Pavlov), Operant conditioning (Skinner), Stimulus-response (S-R)

Behaviorism assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans.

Behaviorism precedes the cognitivist worldview. It rejects structuralism and is an extension of Logical Positivism.

Behaviorist Theories:

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
• GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Reference materials:

• B.F. Skinner's About Behaviorism
• Bandura's Social Learning Theory
• B.F. Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity
• Pavlov's Conditioned Reflexes
• B.F. Skinner's Walden Two
• Estes' Toward a statistical theory of learning

Constructivism

Constructivism posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.

Originators and important contributors: Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Jerome Bruner

Keywords: Learning as experience, activity and dialogical process; Problem Based Learning (PBL); Anchored instruction; Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD); cognitive apprenticeship (scaffolding); inquiry and discovery learning.

Constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation.

Constructivist, Social, and Situational Theories

• Discovery Learning (Bruner)
• Social Development Theory (Vygtosky)
• Situated Learning (Lave)

Reference materials:

• Vygotsky's Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes
• Duffy's Constructivism: Implications for the Design and Delivery of Instruction
• Jonassen's Thinking Technology: Toward a constructivist view of instructional design
• Jonassen's Objectivism versus contructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm?

Cognitivism

The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer).

Originators and important contributors: Noam Chomsky, Merrill -Component Display Theory (CDT), Reigeluth (Elaboration Theory), Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner (moving toward cognitive constructivism), Schank (scripts), Scandura (structural learning)

Keywords: Schema, schemata, information processing, symbol manipulation, information mapping, mental models

Cognitivism replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata.
A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

Cognitivist Theories:

• Assimilation Theory (Ausubel)
• Attribution Theory (Weiner)
• Component Display Theory
• Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
• Gestalt Psychology (Tolman)
• Mental Models (Johnson-Laird)
• Schema Theory
• Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Reference materials:

• Piaget's The Psychology of Intelligence
• Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory by J.M. Mandler

Humanism

Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil one’s potential.

Key proponents: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Malcolm Knowles

Key terms: self-actualization, teacher as facilitator, affect

Humanism is a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values. This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.
Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism could be described as the development of self-actualized, automomous people. In humanism, learning is student centered and personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment.
Related theories include: Experiential Learning (Kolb), Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and Facilitation Theory (Rogers).

Motivational and Humanist Theories:

• ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
• Experiential Learning (Kolb)
• Facilitative Teaching (Rogers)
• Invitational Learning (Purkey)
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Other theories:

Descriptive and Meta Theories:
• Activity Theory (Vygotsky, Leont’ev, Luria, Engstrom, etc.)
• Actor-Network Theory (Latour, Callon)
• Distributed Cognition (Hutchins)
Identity Theories:
• Erikson’s Stages of Development (Erikson)
• Identity Status Theory (Marcia)
• Self-Theories: Entity and Incremental Theory (Dweck)

Other, other theories:

• Affordance Theory (Gibson)
• Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)
• Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

Resources

Learning Theories

Reference material books are linked to Amazon.com

Google Scholar

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Springer Link

*DSteinman